The socio-economic and political development of Germany was greatly influenced by the peculiarities of its economic – and political – geographical location, historical development and natural resource base.
Great benefits are provided to Germany by the location in the center of Europe among economically highly developed states at the intersection of trans-European highways of latitudinal and meridional direction.
One of the most important advantages of the country is the availability of access to the seas, including through navigable rivers, in the lower reaches of which large sea and river ports have arisen, as well as proximity to the port and industrial complexes of neighboring countries and important maritime trade routes.
The convenient economic and geographical position of the country contributes to the organization of fair activities on its territory. More than 60% of international fairs and exhibitions of a global scale are held in Germany. There are about 20 large fair centers. The oldest of them is Leipzig. Widely known are Cologne, Hanover, Frankfurt am Main, Munich, Essen and others.
The Baltic and North Seas surrounding Germany from the north are shallow; therefore, large seaports – Hamburg, Bremen, Rostock – are inferior to the largest ports of the Netherlands, Belgium, France. The only port available for tankers with a carrying capacity of up to 250 thousand tons – Wilhelmshaven, is connected to the sea by an artificial fairway.
The most important factor that influenced the development of the country is the unification of Germany.
Before unification, Germany did not have its own sovereignty in the broadest sense of the word. A country in emergency situations could not be held accountable for either its external or internal security. The consequence was that the former Federal Republic of Germany had to care only about domestic politics. With a constantly increasing standard of living and improved social security, this country could achieve the goals of human liberation in a liberal and humane sense. Probably, there was no country in the whole world where the democratic rules of the game were so exemplary observed as here. The consequence of this situation was the depoliticization of the consciousness of germans, who had little faith in the possibility of uniting the country.
The unification of people in both, previously divided, parts of Germany was contradictory; on the one hand, they experienced feelings of happiness, euphoria. On the other hand, it became clear that the integration of new lands represents an unprecedented event in history. No one, including Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl, had any idea how to replace the system of a centrally managed economy with a free social market system. The developed concept of transition did not exist. It was assumed that expenditures could be financed effortlessly by increasing the total social product. It was an illusion. Experts have estimated that Germany for 15 years should invest in the eastern lands an average of 150 to 180 billion marks, but reality has shown that the amounts should be much larger. Already in 1995, expenses increased to 207.6 billion marks. The allocated funds are used not only for the restoration and reconstruction of the economy of the eastern lands, but also for equalizing the living conditions of people in both parts of Germany. The equalization of wages, various social payments, carried out for reasons of ensuring social peace, requires additional funds, complicates the economic recovery of the eastern lands.
Natural conditions and resources. The surface of Germany gradually rises from north to south. The three stages of relief that stand out – the lowland, the belt of medium-altitude mountains and the alpine highlands – cause the main differences in the natural conditions of the country, and partly in the nature of the economy. In the north – the North German lowland, the relief of which was formed under the influence of marine transgressions and glaciations. The northern lowland is an area very much changed by man. Highways and railways stretch in straight lines, as the boundaries of agricultural land are drawn along the ruler.
The Middle German mountains, formed during the hercynian folding period, are now heavily eroded. In general, the region of the Central German Mountains did not create great difficulties for either agricultural or transport development, and significant mineral reserves contributed to the early settlement and economic development of the territory.
To the south of the mountain belt from west to east stretches a wide valley of the upper Danube, and even further south is the pre-alpine Bavarian plateau.
In the extreme south of Germany, the Alps rise along the border. In their middle part (Bavarian Alps) is the highest point of the country – the Zugspitze mountain (2963 m). Here, the natural landscape is best preserved. Mountain forests, pastures, healing air, wonderful lakes, a significant duration of snow cover contribute to the development of mountain forestry, cattle breeding, resort business, tourism, skiing and attracting a population to this area, especially the well-to-do.
Among the countries of Western Europe, Germany stands out for its reserves of hard and brown coal, the deposits of which are confined to the mid-altitude mountains, and oil and natural gas to the North German lowland. The main deposits of coal are located in the Ruhr (more than 80%), Saar and Aachen basins. Their total reserves are about 20 billion tons. More than 66% of coals are high-quality coking coals.
In terms of reserves of brown coal (80 billion tons), Germany ranks first among the countries of Western Europe, and in terms of production (193 million tons in 1995) – the first place in the world. Most of them (almost 60%) are in East Germany, in the Lausitz and Middle German basins, and in West Germany the Lower Rhine basin, located west of Cologne, stands out.
Germany is not provided with the most important modern fuels. Oil production is insignificant and does not meet even 5% of the needs, and the productivity of wells is small. Natural gas fields (reserves of 340 billion cubic meters) in the north of the country are of great importance.
Iron ore reserves (the largest Salzgitter deposit) are significant, but their quality is low. Germany is also not rich in alloying and non-ferrous metals. There are deposits of lead-zinc ores, but only deposits in the Western Harz are of economic importance. In the North German lowland there are significant reserves of rock salt. They are concentrated mainly in the areas of Hanover, in the southern and northeastern foothills of the Harz. There are reserves of potassium and magnesium salts. The resources of raw materials for the production of building materials, clays for ceramics and sands for the glass industry are great.
Climate resources. Germany’s position in the center of Europe determines the main features of its climate – moderate, passing from typically marine in the northwest, where the influence of the Atlantic is strong, to more continental in the southeast. However, these differences are small: the average January temperature ranges from +1.50C in the Bay of Cologne in the northwest to +30C in the southeast in Upper Bavaria. The average July temperature: 16–200 ° C. It rises higher only in valleys and basins protected by mountains, where heat-loving crops are cultivated – tobacco and grapes (Rhine Valley). The average annual rainfall is 600–700 mm. In the Alps, altitudinal zonation is found.
Water. More than 80% of the country’s territory belongs to the basins of the North and Baltic Seas. The largest rivers are the Rhine, Elbe, Weser, Ems. The Danube carries its waters to the Black Sea basin. All the most important rivers are connected by canals. In 1993, the Main Danube Canal was put into operation, completing the construction of the trans-European waterway from the North Sea to the Black Sea. In connection with the unification of Germany, the most important water transport problem was the modernization of the Central German Canal and its eastern extension to Berlin and the Oder. The most important for the country is the economic importance of the Rhine, which has the status of an international river.
The supply of drinking water to the population by 90% is ensured by the use of groundwater resources. In the Central German Mountains there are many healing mineral springs, near which there are resorts, for example, the resort of Baden-Baden in the Black Forest.
There are many lakes in the foothills of the Alps: the largest is the Constance basin, which fills a large tectonic basin. Of the lakes of glacial origin, the largest is Lake Müritz in the North German Lowland.
The soils are podzolic and brown forest. Increased fertility is distinguished by the alluvial soils of river valleys and chernozem-like forest-like soils common in the foothills of the medium-altitude mountains and in the Danube part of the Bavarian Plateau, as well as the soils of the coastal marshes. The natural vegetation cover in the country has not been preserved. Forests cover 29% of the area. Almost all of them are planted or heavily modified by man.
After the unification of the two states, the population of Germany in 2000 amounted to 82,797,408 people (the first place in Western Europe), according to forecasts, by 2015 the total number will decrease and amount to 80.7 million people. The dynamics of the natural movement of the German population since the beginning of the 70s is characterized by an excess of mortality over the birth rate. The average fertility rate is 9.35; mortality rate is 10.19; including infant mortality – 4.8.
A particularly sharp drop in the birth rate occurred in the eastern lands of the country after their reunification with the western ones. This is due to the reduction of social benefits for mothers, as well as the migration of young people to the western lands.
The average life expectancy in 2000 was 77.4 years, men – 74.3 years, women – 81 years. The working-age population is 44%. The share of the population under the age of 15 is 15.8%, over 65 years old – 16.1%.
In the past, Germany was a typical country of emigration. In XIX –
XXthv. about 9 million people emigrated from the country (including more than 90% of them to the United States). During the Second World War and after it, Germany ranked first in Europe in terms of the size of external migrations. By the end of the war, there were about 12 million so-called “displaced persons” in the Reich. They were mostly prisoners of war and people forcibly forced into forced labor, most of them left Germany after the war. Nevertheless, the population increased due to the arrival of millions of refugees and settlers from areas that went after the war to Poland and the Soviet Union, as well as German prisoners of war who returned from Czechoslovakia and other countries.
Since the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century, labor has been recruited from the countries of Southern Europe and Turkey. By the time of German reunification, there were 4.9 million foreigners in its western lands, and about 0.2 million foreigners in the eastern lands.
In the late 80s and early 90s of the last century, an increase in the influx of foreigners to Germany claiming the status of political refugees began, as well as the return of ethnic Germans from Poland, Romania and the states that arose on the territory of the Soviet Union.
At the beginning of 1998, immigrants living in the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany accounted for 9% of the population (7.3 million people), as well as 4 million immigrants. This is the result of the emerging trend of increasing the share of foreign labor – the so-called “gastrbeiters”. The influx of immigrants into the country continues unabated. Moreover, it has become uncontrollable : in 1992–
In 1993 , more foreigners entered The Federal Republic of Germany than the United States, Canada and Australia combined. Unless immigration policy is drastically changed, 10.6 million foreigners will be living in Germany by 2015 . If the immigration rate continues, by 2030 the growth in the number of foreigners is projected to reach 17 million people, which will be 21% of the country’s population.
In general, the German population is characterized by:
– gradual reduction of natural increase;
– aging of the nation;
– influx of immigrants.
The fall in the birth rate causes the aging of the nation, an increase in the number of pensioners, which creates an additional burden on the economy.
The ageing of the nation leads to an increase in cash amounts for the payment of pensions and benefits; the growth of the non-productive sphere of the economy due to the need for care and medical care of a large number of persons; an increase in the economic burden on the able-bodied population, which leads to an increase in social tension and a further reduction in the birth rate.
Germany is a uni-national country. About 90% of its population is German. Among the national minorities are the Lusatian Serbs (about 100 thousand people) living in the lands of Brandenburg and Saxony and having their own language, in the north-west – the Frisians (on the Frisian Islands), in the northern regions about 50 thousand Danes, about 40 thousand Roma migrating throughout the country.
The average population density is 230 people / sq. km (the world average is 40 people / sq.km). According to this indicator, Germany belongs to the most populated countries in Europe. Only the Netherlands (463 people / sq. km), Belgium (311 people / sq. km) and the UK (244 people / sq. km) are higher population density. Throughout the country, the population is extremely unevenly settled. In Berlin, an area of high concentration, the population is growing rapidly. Now in the Berlin agglomeration there are more than 4 million inhabitants, in the near future the population in it is expected to reach 8 million. in the industrial regions of the Rhine and ruhr, where one city imperceptibly passes into another, the average density is about 5500 people / sq. km. Of all the lands, the highest density is North Rhine-Westphalia – 521 people / sq. km (this is almost 22% of the country’s population). in the Saarland – 415 people / sq. km, in Thuringia and Lower Saxony – 157 people / sq. km. These densely populated regions are opposed by the sparsely populated territories of the North German lowland – Mecklenburg – Western Pomerania, the land of Brandenburg.
Germany is a highly urbanized country. In 2000, over 87.3 per cent of the population lived in urban areas. In 2015, the urban population will be 89.9%, cities with a population of more than 1 million people are few. These are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich.
The most ancient cities of Germany arose in the days of the Roman Empire on the site of Roman fortifications, for example, Trier, Bonn, Cologne. In the Middle Ages, many shopping centers appeared at the crossroads of important trade routes, in particular, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Lübeck. A large group consists of cities formed near ancient fortresses or castles. There are especially many of them along the Rhine, since it has always been an important strategic frontier. A new stage of urbanization is associated with the development of industrialization. Many cities are the cores of agglomerations and even larger urban structures – urban regions. The largest of these is the Rhine-Ruhr. The Lower Rhine-Ruhr agglomeration with the cities of Duisburg and Essen stands out; Dortmund in the old industrial Ruhr region and the Lower Rhine cities of Cologne, Bonn, Reidt and others; Rhine-Main region with the cities of Frankfurt, Wiesbaden and Mainz; the industrial region of the Rhine-Neckar with the cities of Mannheim and Ludwigshafen, the economic region around Stuttgart, the economic regions of Bremen, Dresden, Hamburg, Cologne, Leipzig, Munich and others. Almost every third resident of the republic lives in one of the 85 large cities (over 100 thousand inhabitants). That’s about 26 million people. The overwhelming majority inhabit villages and small towns, 46 million live in communities with a population of 1-2 thousand people.
The predominant religion is Christianity. In the country, about 41% of the population are Protestant evangelicals and 35% are Catholics, more than 2% are Muslims (immigrants from Turkey and other Muslim countries).
State system, territorial division. Germany is a parliamentary republic. According to the territorial-political structure, it is a federation consisting of 16 “lands”, each of which has its own constitution, parliament and government.
The head of state is the federal president. He performs mainly representative functions, is elected by a specially convened federal assembly for a period of 5 years. On 23 May 1999, Johannes Rau was elected to this post.
The highest legislative power is exercised by the Parliament, consisting of two chambers – the Bundestag (Chamber of Deputies) and the Bundesrat (Chamber of Länder). The Bundestag is elected for 4 years by universal secret ballot of the population, members of the Bundesrat are appointed by the state governments for a period of 4 years. Each land has a minimum of three, but not more than six votes (depending on the population).
All executive power belongs to the federal government, headed by the Federal Chancellor, elected by the Bundestag for 4 years. Since 1998, this post has been held by Gerhard Schröder. The highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court. The Constitution of the Federation, the basic law of the Federal Republic of Germany, was adopted in 1949.
Political parties. The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the largest party (about 1 million people), was created in 1869 and has considerable influence on trade unions, as well as workers, intellectuals and small proprietors. The SPD stands for the preservation of private property and free enterprise, and aims to ensure class peace in society through certain socio-economic reforms.
The party “Union-90 / Greens” was created in 1993 as a result of the merger of the Green Party (Germany) with organizations and groups that spoke from the standpoint of environmental protection (more than 50 thousand). Its support is made up of young people and students, supported by the middle-income strata of the population and the intelligentsia.
The Christian Democratic Union (CDU), formed in 1945, unites about 900 thousand people. He enjoys influence in broad circles of the population, relies on the support of the church, especially the Catholic one.
The Christian Social Union (CSU) operates in Bavaria. Politically related to the CDU.
The Free Democratic Party (FDP) is a liberal party that expresses the interests of medium and small entrepreneurs, employees, intellectuals, part of the peasantry and artisans. He advocates “reasonable internal reforms”, the inviolability of private property, and freedom of entrepreneurship.
The Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) was created on the basis of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), the former ruling party in the GDR, which radically revised its program and charter.
Of the smaller parties, the Republican Party, the German People’s Union, and the National Democratic Party stand out.